Factors influencing the job satisfaction of academics in higher education

Since there has not been much research focus on job satisfaction in Higher Education in South Africa, this article describes the job satisfaction of these academics in times of transformation. A survey design involved 94 respondents from similar departments at a residential and a distance education institution. A questionnaire focused on teaching, research, community service, administration, compensation, promotions, university management, co-workers' behaviour and physical conditions. Demographics that could influence the job satisfaction of the academics were also considered. These included university context, being employed on a full-time or part-time basis, rank, ethnic group, union membership and gender. Factors causing satisfaction and dissatisfaction were identified. These were sometimes influenced by the above-mentioned demographics. Three-quarters of the sample indicated that, all things considered, they were satisfied with their work. Significant correlations between job satisfaction and physical conditions and support, in particular, were determined. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Oshagbemi (1996, 389) believes that job satisfaction is an important subject because of its relevance to the physical and mental wellbeing of employees. Hence, an understanding of the factors relating to job satisfaction is important. It may affect absenteeism, turnover and job performance. `Highly satisfied faculty will generally be innovative and motivated to establish and maintain an environment conducive to learning' (Truell, Price and Joyner 1998, 120). In this regard, job satisfaction is seen as `a pleasurable or positive emotional state, resulting from the appraisal of one's job experiences' (Locke in Oshagbemi 1999, 388). Although academics have often researched the job satisfaction of others, electronic data bases reveal that their own job satisfaction has less often been investigated, especially in South Africa (as will be indicated). Academics are a unique group worth studying. Their primary tasks are defined as teaching, research and community service although they also have administrative and management tasks. Academics have to keep abreast of new developments in other fields that 318 # Unisa Press ISSN 1011±3487 SAJHE 20 (2) 2006 pp. 318±335 319 Factors influencing the job satisfaction of academics in higher education influence the way they work, such as computer and computer-related developments. Added to this is the issue of control (their own versus that of government) over their teaching, research and community service functions. Thus, research findings on the job satisfaction of those employed in other professions may not be useful for understanding the factors that influence the satisfaction of academics in Higher Education (HE). When `job satisfaction' and `Higher Education' are used as key words, the ISAP-Index to South African periodicals has recorded 8 matches only for publications between 1987 and 2004. Apart from this, there is an absence of literature on how demographics influence job satisfaction in times of transformation, for example, when HE institutions merge with one another. These demographics include teaching context, full-time or part-time employment, rank, ethnic group, union membership and gender. Thus, the aim of this study is to provide greater understanding of factors influencing the job satisfaction of academics. FACTORS INFLUENCING JOB SATISFACTION OR DISSATISFACTION OF ACADEMICS Herzberg and his co-workers (1957) argued that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but no satisfaction. Likewise, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction. According to his theory, `motivators' (e.g. achievement and responsibility), lead to job satisfaction when present, but do not produce dissatisfaction when absent. These satisfiers are intrinsic factors. Job context features, called `hygiene' factors, (e.g. company policies, supervision and salary) are called extrinsic factors. They cause dissatisfaction when inadequate but do not cause satisfaction, even when they are present. Bowen and Radhakrishna (1991, 18) used Herzberg's theory to determine the role of motivator and hygiene factors in the job satisfaction of academics from Agricultural Education. Regarding the motivator factors, they found that the academics were most satisfied by the work itself and least satisfied with their opportunities for advancement. With regard to hygiene factors, academics were most satisfied with interpersonal relationships inherent in being a faculty member and least satisfied with the level and method used to determine their salary. The researchers found that the job satisfaction of the faculty was independent of the respondents' age, being tenured or not, type of institution and years of teaching experience (Bowen and Radhakrishna 1991, 19). In his research with HE lecturers in the UK, Oshagbemi (1996, 389±400) found that the respondents in his sample rated the satisfaction which they derived from teaching, research and interaction with colleagues highly: between 65 per cent and 80 per cent were satisfied with those aspects of their jobs. The variability in the responses was also low. The satisfaction of respondents with their head of unit's behaviour, as well as their physical working conditions was lower. Regarding the satisfaction derived from the heads of the units' supervision, the variability was wide: while some respondents were very satisfied, others were extremely dissatisfied. Dissatisfaction was also found for administrative and managerial tasks, present pay and promotions. Lecturers were satisfied, in rank order from more to less, with teaching, research, administration. There was also considerable variation among academics in their levels of confidence to do research. Regarding the relationship between job satisfaction, salaries and membership of unions, Lillydahl and Singell (1993, 237) found that American male full professors had salaries that were 6.5 per cent higher than those of female full professors, and white full professors had salaries that were 8.3 per cent higher than non-white full professors. White associate professors had significantly lower salaries than nonwhites. They also found that unionised faculty members were significantly more satisfied with wages, benefits, and to some extent job security, but less satisfied than non-unionised members with almost all other elements of their jobs. These included the reputation of the institution, the quality of the students and their colleagues, leadership in departments, administrative offices, cooperation among faculty, support services (e.g. equipment, teaching/research assistants) and the control they had over work assignments (e.g. workload, time spent with students) (Lillydahl and Singell 1993, 241). Hemmasi, Graf and Lust (1992, 439±441) found that satisfaction with pay (rather than pay level itself) was significantly and positively correlated with job satisfaction. In contrast, length of time at the university correlated negatively with satisfaction. Males were marginally more satisfied than females. Satisfaction with advancement also correlated positively with overall satisfaction. The gender difference in satisfaction was confirmed by Tang and Talpade (1999, 345): they found that males tended to have higher satisfaction with pay than females, while females tended to have higher satisfaction with co-workers than males. Job satisfaction also significantly and positively correlated with overall life satisfaction. Staff from different faculties or institutions may differ significantly in what they consider important for job satisfaction. Kledaras and Joslyn (1992±1993, 4±5), working with social work academics, determined that the general level of job satisfaction was high at four institutions (all private institutions), moderate at three institutions and low at three institutions. Intrinsic satisfaction relating to the creative and challenging nature of the work, was more important than working conditions (e.g. promotion, advancement, workload and salary). However, the level of job satisfaction may be influenced by policies governing the job. Organisational context of the work setting had little impact on job satisfaction. The demographics of the respondents (position, educational level, rank, length of service) revealed no significant relationships with satisfaction. Regarding the influence of ethnicity as a demographic variable, Collision (1999, 26±28) found the following to be an important influence on the satisfaction